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Chi, T. R. (1989). Observations on the past, present, and future of teaching Mandarin Chinese as a foreign language. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 24(2), 109-122.
Abstract: The current status of teaching Chinese as a foreign language (TCFL) programs in the US is considered. It is argued that TCFL has not been involved with nor benefited from language pedagogy research. In general, the teaching of Mandarin Chinese is guided largely by the format of whatever textbook is used. Too great an emphasis is placed on reading, at the expense of listening comprehension & speaking skills. It is argued that a clearly defined curriculum should be outlined, & textbooks should be developed around this curriculum. Programs should be proficiency-oriented, training students to use language outside as well as inside the classroom. General features of such a curriculum must be developed with an eye to the unique features of Mandarin Chinese.
Everson, M. E. (1994). Toward a process view of teaching reading in the second language Chinese curriculum. Theory into Practice, 33(1), 4-9.
Abstract: The process of reading in Chinese, as undertaken by the American learner, is explored in order to illustrate the complexity of second-language (L2) reading in a language that uses a non-Western orthography. It is stated that the complexity of the task lies in the fact that the Chinese character gives no clue as to its pronunciation. Written Chinese is presented only after learners have been introduced to a romanized system of Chinese, which aids in learning or pronunciation, vocabulary development, & the learning of grammatical structures. E. B. Bernhardt's model of the L2 reading process (1986) is applied to the process of reading in Chinese, resulting in a prediction of the kinds of problems nonnative speakers of Chinese are likely to encounter. Problems include slow, effortful, & inaccurate character recognition, leading to impaired comprehension, & an inattention to syntax & intratextual features, due to excessive effort expended on the processing of words, graphemes, & phonemes. Four suggestions are given for making the reading process easier for learners: encouraging both accurate & fast recognition of characters, delaying the introduction of characters until a firm basis in the language is achieved through romanization, developing opportunities for practicing reading that are meaningful & challenging, & using authentic texts & materials.
Li, Y. A. (1998). Steps towards reading proficiency: progressive readings. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 33(3), 79-96.
Abstract: The U of Southern California's collection of reading materials for Chinese language learners is introduced. Chinese instruction is often frustrated by a dearth of materials meeting requirements of authenticity & students' reading proficiency & interests. The Progressive Readings follow principles of balance, relevance, appropriateness & flexibility, continuity & exposure, & effectiveness & user-friendliness. The materials are rewritten into several versions for different difficulty levels. Three versions of one story are given & their differences noted. A Website address is given where some of the 200 completed stories are available. Instructional uses of the texts are suggested, & advantages of the readings listed. Some plans for continued development of the project are noted.
McGinnis, S. (1994). Cultures of instruction: identifying and resolving conflicts. Theory into Practice, 33(1), 16-22.
Abstract: Following a description of past & current attempts to define & measure cultural understanding in foreign-language instruction, including critical language instruction, the idea of "cultures of instruction," or the set of experiences & expectations each culture (that of both students & teachers) brings to the language classroom, is explored. A model for evaluating conflicts in such expectations between teachers & students is presented in the form of a survey given to Chinese-educated teachers (N = 12) & American-educated students (N = 84) in a Chinese language program in the US. The survey included procedures & materials used in language instruction, & respondents were asked to rate the importance of each item. Several areas of conflict were identified, indicating potential sources of difficulty in the language classroom. On the other hand, several aspects were ranked equally important or unimportant by both groups. It is emphasized that, although the results of this survey cannot be applied to any other population, it provides a model for assessing potential conflicts in the cultures of instruction, & illustrates the value of such an assessment in enhancing the language-learning experience for both teachers & students.
McGinnis, S. (Ed.). (1996). Chinese pedagogy: an emerging field. Columbus, OH: National Foreign Language Resource Center at the Ohio State University.
Include:
Toward a communicative model for teaching and learning Chinese as a foreign language: exploring some new possibilities by Chi, T. R.
Reinventing language fields: the Chinese case by Walton, A. R.
Tonal distinction errors by beginning Chinese language students: a comparative study of American English and Japanese native speakers by McGinnis, S.
Exploiting background knowledge in the development of Chinese pedagogical reading materials by Everson, M. E.
Acquisition of modal particles in Chinese second language learners by Bourgerie, D. S.
Class plan for teaching Chinese as a functional language by Chu, M.
Starting a secondary school Chinese program by Wong, M.
Designing an intensive Chinese curriculum by Walker, G. L. R.
Citizens of a global village: information technology and Chinese language instruction—a search for standards by Alber, C. J.
A review of some computer-assisted language learning (CALL) software for Chinese by Yao, T.
Linguistically accurate and culturally appropriate: the use of authentic video in Chinese language instruction by Tang, Y.
Moore, S. J. (1996). Intervention strategies for the development of pre-collegiate Chinese. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association, 31(2), 23-36.
Abstract: The development of precollegiate Chinese instructional programs in the US is discussed. An outline of the history of this initiative is described, including the various supportive programs funded by governmental & private sources. The funding for these programs is concentrated in four main areas, whose strengths & weaknesses are examined: (1) the development of appropriate teaching materials, (2) the creation of more teacher education programs, (3) encouraging individual institutions to sponsor Chinese language classes, & (4) introducing field-wide efforts to further develop precollegiate Chinese. Suggestions are given to help promote these programs, including the need to develop the teacher certification process, grants to sponsor students learning Chinese, & recognizing Chinese community schools as legitimate avenues of language instruction.
Foreign Languages/Critical Languages
Schrier, L. L. (1994). Preparing teachers of critical languages for the precollegiate environment. Theory into Practice, 33(1), 53-59.
Abstract: The teaching environment experienced by teachers of less commonly taught languages (LCTLs) in elementary & secondary schools, & the particular qualities seen in LCTL teachers, are explored, followed by a discussion of teacher preparation concepts that are deemed necessary to produce effective LCTL teachers. The LCTL teaching environment is described as isolating, as a result of bias toward traditional languages, lack of outside professional support, lack of materials, & inadequate or temporary physical space. Some characteristics of teachers of LCTLs are said to be unique among teachers of foreign languages: many are older when they become teachers, they are often native speakers of the language, & many of them hold advanced degrees in the language. One common characteristic found among teachers of LCTLs is a lack of instruction in education. Suggestions are given for preparation of LCTL teachers, during university coursework & field experiences, as well as following employment in the precollegiate environment, in the form of in-service professional development. It is concluded that the generalization of teaching methods & techniques from those used in the teaching of more common languages is detrimental to the development of LCTL teachers, when there is a lack of sensitivity toward the unique, & often troublesome, teaching environment in which these teachers find themselves.
Schrier, L. L. (2001). Developing precollegiate foreign language teachers: an overlooked mission of foreign language departments. ADFL Bulletin, 32(3), 71-78.
Abstract: As nearly 50% of high school students study a foreign language, it is important for members of college foreign language departments to realize the influence they have in shaping future foreign language teachers. The effect of the collegiate language major on future teachers' notion of language instruction is both explicit, from course content, & implicit, from 460-500 hours of foreign language class time during which a future teacher learns the meaning of teaching a language. Foreign language programs have an impact on four teaching characteristics: (1) proficiency in the language & culture to be taught, which recent surveys show cannot be taken for granted; (2) proficiency in the language & culture of the school environment, which must be promoted to an explicit priority; (3) expertise in curriculum design & evaluation, which in the case of foreign languages is not usually provided by teacher training programs; & (4) technological sophistication, ie, comprehension of the creative potential of technology in a language curriculum. Implications of the current trend toward language requirements in secondary education & the emergence of new teaching environments are also explored.
As part of the Teacher Training program, conducting classroom action research can be a powerful tool to inform classroom practice. Click here to see resources on this topic that are provided by the National Capital Language Resource Center: Conducting Action Research in the Foreign Language Classroom
